Ecology is the study of how different organisms, such as plants, microbes, and animals, come together in a physical place. Ecologists study soils — which are themselves miniature ecosystems, packed with bacteria, fungi, plants, and insects — water systems, biodiversity, and much more.

Human beings are as much a part of ecosystems as any other animal, and ecologists are interested in understanding both how humans can damage ecosystems and how they can work to repair or strengthen the complex bonds that link species together.

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In Daybreak, “Energy” refers to electricity generation. Clean energy includes solar photovoltaic, solar thermal, onshore wind, offshore wind, geothermal, hydropower and nuclear. These energy sources are generally abundant, renewable, and their generation produces no greenhouse gas emissions. Some fossil fuels – such as methane, sometimes called ‘natural gas’ – are presented as ‘clean-er’ than other fossil fuels, yet oil, methane, and coal all emit large amounts of carbon dioxide when burned and large amounts of methane when extracted, and it follows that all contribute significantly to the climate crisis.

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Geoengineering describes a set of large-scale interventions into the climate system which might help in the fight against the climate emergency. There are two categories: Carbon Dioxide Removal ideas like Ocean Fertilization and Direct Air Capture, and Solar Radiation Management ideas like Stratospheric Sulfur and Cloud Brightening. These ideas are not a substitute for cutting CO2 emissions or adaptation, but Carbon Dioxide Removal could help bring CO2 concentrations back down to safe levels once we’ve eliminated emissions and Solar Radiation Management could lower global temperatures and might help to reduce climate risks while these other policies are implemented.

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Electricity grids are the infrastructural system that connects generators to homes, businesses, factories, vehicles, and all other devices, machines, and structures that use electrical energy. An electricity grid is a complex network, made up of power generators, a ‘motorway’ style transmission grid that transports energy over long distances, a spidery distribution grid that takes electricity down to the street level, and substations that mediate between them. 

In a clean energy future, electricity grids will need to handle a much higher quantity of renewable energy, they will also need to properly connect green generators to those who consume that energy, and must be able to smooth out variations in the ‘intermittent’ output from sources like wind and solar energy, using energy storage and other energy flexibility measures. Electricity grids will also need to handle increased power demand (and changing demand patterns) that will result from electrifying vehicles and heating, and they must be resilient in the face of increasingly frequent and extreme weather events.

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Incentives for carbon mitigation usually refer to payments made by the government to organizations or individuals to promote climate-friendly behaviors and the development or use of low-carbon technologies.

Government funding could take the form of grants, rebates, preferential tax treatment, loans or other financing. For example, a government might provide an investment tax credit to recycling treatment plant developers to improve their reuse facilities or offer a tax rebate to home-owners who install rooftop solar.

Some types of incentives don’t involve direct financial payments but may increase revenue or improve savings for the beneficiary. Examples include the use of carpool lanes by electric vehicles, energy auditing support, and bulk procurement contracts to suppliers who meet high energy-efficiency standards.

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Infrastructure is generally defined as the physical structures and systems we build to support the functioning of our communities, economy, and society more widely. Obvious examples are roads, buildings, sewage pipes, the electrical grid, and telecommunications networks. Infrastructure is often divided into two major categories: gray infrastructure, and green infrastructure. 

Some define gray infrastructure as that which uses human-made materials such as steel and concrete; with green infrastructure using natural resources and even encompassing the environment itself, such as forests and wetlands. 

Others define gray and green infrastructure according to the way it relates to the natural world. In this case, pylons carrying extractive fossil-energy would count as gray infrastructure, but those carrying green energy might be classed as green infrastructure. As the climate shifts, we will need new investment to (re)build and redesign our infrastructure to ensure that it is sustainable and resilient.

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Innovation means designing new systems and ways to run systems or activities. Sometimes this looks like lab-stage science creating a new physical technology. Sometimes it looks like a government or organization adapting a system to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, change focus or work in a different region – for example, innovative community financing models are helping to make clean energy technologies viable in many countries. Often innovation is about making better versions of existing systems, or imagining new ways of running activities, to make them cheaper and better for people and ecosystems.

While the world could theoretically repower most fossil fuel equipment with clean technologies that exist at commercial scale today, the price would be extremely high, and this would require the extraction of more precious minerals and metals, such as lithium for batteries, than is ecologically safe. We also run the risk of perpetuating extractive mindsets and global power imbalances if we try to run the green transition using the approaches and business models that have led us to this point. This means we need to think innovatively about everything, from our cultural habits around energy use and consumption, to how we finance, govern and make decisions about changes.

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Nuclear energy can be harvested by splitting certain atoms (usually uranium), which is called fission.

Nuclear energy has been used by humans since the 1950s, mainly to generate electricity (and sometimes industrial heat). Nuclear is the most energy-dense form of power available. It emits no greenhouse gas emissions, but can be slow and expensive to build, and does have noteable ecological consequences.

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Regulations are rules to enforce laws and monitor compliance. They are created by government agencies – like the environmental authority – and typically approved after public hearings and consultations. In relation to greenhouse gas emissions, they usually refer to standards set by governments for the energy efficiency of appliances like your refrigerator and emissions from industrial processes. 

Regulations can also prescribe technology or design standards (e.g., the types of boilers to use), specify performance standards (e.g, energy use per sq.m of a building), or encourage new behaviors (e.g., renewable energy standards). The latter provides compliance flexibility by setting sector-wide targets and allowing trading between under- and over- performing firms.

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Stronger societies are better able to tackle the climate emergency and handle climate shocks. For example, more trusting societies generally have less corruption and crime. They are also happier, more cohesive, and better able to tackle crisis situations than less trusting societies. Greater trust can be achieved by having strong, democratic institutions, high quality public services, and a vibrant civil society that is enabled by freedom of speech. All these can help reduce inequalities of power and in the economy, both of which are holding back climate action. Ultimately, the climate emergency can only be tackled if communities and countries are able to cooperate in the best interests of people and the planet.

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Solar power harnesses renewable energy from the sun to generate electricity. Solar panels are easy to install and can be placed almost anywhere the sun shines, making them a cheap, clean, reliable source of renewable energy that can save consumers money on their energy bills.

The solar industry has grown significantly in recent years, with a 47% increase in global solar capacity from 2019 to 2021 alone. This growth is, in part, a result of dramatically falling costs – an 85% decrease from 2010 to 2020 - and policies that encourage investment in solar, like net metering, tax incentives and other subsidies.

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The wind is a powerful source of renewable energy. It can be harnessed by turbines, which in turn, spin internal generators to produce electricity. Wind turbines are typically placed in areas with an abundance of wind flow, either on land and at sea.

Costs for generating wind energy have fallen dramatically - by 50% from 2010 to 2020 - helping make wind one of the fastest-growing sources of electricity and a highly competitive alternative to fossil fuel-based electricity generation. While wind is an unpredictable, ‘intermittent’ source of energy, improvements in battery technology and electricity grid management are addressing these challenges, so that wind energy can be increasingly used in such a way that it lines up with consumer energy demand.

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